Abstract: Interpersonal communication

Psychology of Interpersonal Impact

Psychological impact

- this is the directed transfer of information from one person to another with the aim of changing the psychological characteristics, behavior and other characteristics of a communication partner. The transmitted information can be in both verbal and non-verbal form. Psychological influence in most cases comes down to the mutual exchange of information, influence and mutual influence, to interaction. Psychological influence can often be the ultimate goal of communication, which involves forming certain beliefs and motivation in the partner in interpersonal contact. In terms of content, the psychological impact can be pedagogical, managerial, ideological, etc.

In Russia, the study of the problem of psychological influence has traditionally been considered in theoretical terms as the study of methods of influence [Porshnev 1979; Kulikov 1983; Parygin 1999; Kabachenko 2000], and in applied - in pedagogical and ideological activities. The most famous abroad are the empirical Yale studies of K. Hovland, which are devoted to a comprehensive study of various conditions that influence a person’s acceptance of the information that influences him. In addition, foreign psychological literature studies tactics of influence and manipulation, their effectiveness depending on the status and position of the individual, the psychological characteristics of interacting people, the situation, etc. [Cialdini 1999].

Psychological influence can be directed at other people and at oneself (mental self-impact - self-persuasion, self-regulation, self-programming, etc.), but this phenomenon is not the subject of consideration in this topic. Psychological influence can be carried out on different levels of the psyche: conscious and unconscious.

The systems approach to psychological impact is similar to interpersonal perception. It includes the subject, object and process of psychological influence. The one who first started a series of influences can be called the subject (initiator), and the one who experienced his influence can be called the object (addressee of influence, recipient).

Subject of psychological influence

can act as an organizer, performer (communicator) and researcher of its impact process. The subject can be one person or a group. The effectiveness of influence depends on gender, age, social status, material and information resources and many other components of the subject, and most importantly, on his professional and psychological preparedness to influence his communication partner. The subject of interpersonal influence studies the object and the situation in which the influence is carried out; chooses strategy, tactics and means of influence; takes into account signals received from the object about the success or failure of the influence (feedback); organizes opposition to the object (if there is a possible counter-influence), etc. If the recipient (object of influence) does not agree with the information offered to him and seeks to reduce the effect of the influence exerted on him, the communicator has the opportunity to use the patterns of reflexive control or manipulative influence.

In the object of psychological influence

often highlight the subject of influence, that is, those phenomena to which psychological influence is directed. These include beliefs, motives, value orientations, etc., and in a group of people - the psychological climate, intergroup tension, etc. The object, being an active element of the system of influence, processes the information offered to it and may not agree with the subject, and in some cases cases and carry out counter-influence on the communicator, i.e. himself to act as a subject. The object correlates the information offered to it by the communicator with its existing value orientations and its life experience, and then makes a decision. The characteristics of the object that influence the effectiveness of the impact on it include its gender, age, nationality, profession, education, experience in participating in the communication exchange of information and other characteristics. Sometimes the role of an object can be not only one person, but also a group. In the latter case, the process of exerting influence becomes more complex.

Interpersonal influence process

includes strategy, tactics, dynamics, means, methods, forms, argumentation and criteria for the effectiveness of influence.

Strategy

these are the methods of action of the subject to achieve the main goal of psychological influence on the recipient.
Two main types of psychological influence strategies can be designated as monological and dialogical [Ball, Burgin 1994]. The subject of influence, guided by a monological strategy, behaves in such a way as if only he were a full-fledged subject and bearer of truth, and the recipient was only an object of influence. Within the framework of the monologue type of strategy, two subtypes are distinguished: imperative and manipulative. With an imperative strategy,
the desired result of the impact is directly indicated by the subject, and the recipient’s activity should be aimed at understanding and implementing whose instructions.
With a manipulative strategy,
the goal of influence is not directly proclaimed, but is achieved through the subject of influence shaping the recipient’s activity in such a way that it unfolds in the direction desired by him (Dotsenko, 1997).
The dialogical (developmental) strategy
is based on the recognition of the subjective usefulness and fundamental equality of interacting partners and therefore seeks to abstract from all possible differences between them.

Tactics

This is the solution of intermediate problems of psychological influence through the use of various psychological techniques. The tactics of influence are determined by its objectives. All tactics can be divided into two main groups of short-term and long-term effects.

Means of influence

can be verbal and non-verbal (paralinguistic and extralinguistic).
Compared to other elements of the process, the means of influence are the most variable. With adequate selection, they can ensure effective impact. The basis for success is the choice of an argumentation system
that is convincing to the recipient, based on real life conditions and taking into account the psychological characteristics of the object.
The argumentation system may include ideological evidence, information characterizing the way of life, etc. As for the use of non-verbal means of influence,
in general they must be adequate to the object, subject and conditions of influence.

Methods of influence include persuasion and coercion (at the level of consciousness), suggestion, infection and imitation (at the unconscious level of the psyche).

Belief

in relation to psychological impact, it can perform several functions: informational, critical and constructive. The information function depends on the degree of awareness of the recipient on the subject (problem, issue) of the impact. The critical function is to evaluate the views, opinions, stereotypes of value orientations of the object and is especially important in disputes, discussions, etc., i.e. in the process of persuading the recipient. The constructive function is manifested in the formation of new views, approaches and attitudes in the object. Persuasion, compared to persuasion, is a more complex, time-consuming and psychologically painful process for the recipient, since he experiences a breakdown of existing views and ideas, the destruction of old ones and the formation of new attitudes. In this regard, the communicator has to spend significantly more psychological and other resources on the process of influence.

Compulsion

As a method of influence, it has two modifications: physical and moral-psychological coercion. The first is related to the use of physical or military force and will not be considered by us. The second modification manifests itself, for example, in managerial or educational practice. The method of coercion is essentially the same as the method of persuasion. In both cases, the communicator's task is to ensure that the recipient accepts his proposal. In both persuasion and coercion, the subject justifies his point of view with the help of evidence. The main feature of the coercion method compared to persuasion is that the basic premises with which this thesis is substantiated potentially contain negative sanctions for the object.

Under suggestion

refers to purposeful, unreasoned influence based on uncritical perception of information. Suggestion is actively used in pedagogical and medical practice, in military affairs, in the media, etc. The effectiveness of suggestion depends on the characteristics of the subject and object and especially on their developing relationships. The presence of a positive attitude in the object towards the subject helps to optimize the impact. The effectiveness of the suggestive influence can be achieved by increasing the prestige of the subject, repeating the influence in various modifications and reinforcing the content with logically thought out and convincing (from the recipient’s point of view) evidence. This is explained by the fact that the target’s existing wariness towards suggested information will be destroyed by compelling arguments. If the recipient's resistance is high, then the evidence should be more convincing and affect his feelings.

Infection

consists in the unconscious and involuntary susceptibility of people to certain mental states. Contagion has integrative and expressive functions. The first is used to enhance the monolithic nature of the group, the second is associated with the relief of mental tension. The expressive function of infection is clearly manifested at entertainment events. The influence of the infection method can also be observed in the case of a successful joke by the speaker. Infection has different effectiveness depending on the excellent and business qualities of the object (such as restraint, a high level of self-control, etc.). Infection has always been successfully used by leaders of various religious movements and denominations. A certain kind of emotional state easily spreads among the masses of people who come to a religious meeting, which makes them more suggestible and controllable.

Imitation

consists of the object’s conscious or unconscious following of the behavior or example of the subject of influence. Imitation is actively used, for example, in pedagogical and managerial activities. Following the models of decent behavior of teachers and managers allows us to develop high personal and business qualities in students or subordinates. The effectiveness of imitation depends on age, gender, personal and business qualities of the subject and object, the relationship between them and many other characteristics.

Forms of interpersonal influence

can be verbal (written and oral), visual and demonstration. Identification of these forms is necessary for scientific analysis and development of specific recommendations for optimizing the psychological impact in practical work. The easiest to perceive are oral (speech), visual, and especially demonstration forms. The choice of forms is determined by many factors: objectives of influence, personal and business qualities of the object and subject, material and financial resources of the subject, etc.

Argument system

involves abstract evidence and information of a concrete nature. Research shows that the most effective information is factual and numerical information that is easier to remember and compare. The criterion for the effectiveness of an argument may be the measure of convergence of the positions of the participants in the conversation. Indirect evidence of the effectiveness of the argument is considered to be an improvement in relations between the interlocutors and an increase in their trust in each other. It is advisable to take into account the principles of selection and presentation of information (evidence and satisfaction of the information needs of a particular object), as well as communication barriers (cognitive, socio-psychological, etc.).

Effectiveness criteria

can be strategic (delayed in the future, for example, ideological) and tactical (intermediate), which guide the subject in the process of influencing a partner (for example, speech statements, facial expressions, etc.). As intermediate criteria for the effectiveness of interpersonal influence, the subject can use changes in the psychophysiological, functional, paralinguistic, verbal, proxemic and behavioral characteristics of the object. It is advisable to use the criteria in the system, comparing their intensity and frequency of manifestation.

Test questions and assignments

1. Give the concept of communication.

2. Describe the main aspects of the communication process.

3. Expand the main types and means of communication.

4. What is the systems approach to interpersonal perception?

5. What features of the subject influence his perception of people?

6. What components are included in the physical and social appearance of the perceived person?

7. Describe existing mechanisms of interpersonal cognition.

8. List the main functions of communication and reveal their content.

9. What are interpersonal relationships?

10. What is the relationship between the concepts of “social distance” and “psychological distance”?

11. Describe the dynamics of interpersonal relationships.

12. What is the essence of empathy and how does it manifest itself?

13. What is psychological impact?

14. What characteristics of the subject of psychological influence influence the effectiveness of interpersonal influence?

15. What features of an object must be taken into account when exerting a psychological impact on it?

16. Describe the structural elements of the process of psychological influence.

17. Describe the methods of psychological influence.

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Interpersonal influence and social power

11.1. Definition of concepts

For a long time people have thought about such a phenomenon as human power over other people. What makes them obey someone's will? Why do they sometimes readily follow a person who does not hold any government positions or have any official power? Do they go, sometimes risking their lives for the ideas put forward by this person? And it happens the other way around. Some person is at the top of the power pyramid, but fails in trying to lead people. Why? What is the “secret” to the successful influence of one person on others? What is power? And why does it have a special power?

All these questions have occupied both those in power and thinkers belonging to one or another scientific school for many centuries. The works of a number of outstanding representatives of social philosophy are devoted to a wide range of problems of power and influence. These include, first of all, N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes, F. Nietzsche, M. Weber, B. Russell. Many of the theoretical insights of these thinkers then formed the basis of empirically oriented approaches carried out in modern social psychology.

Let's start by defining the concepts of influence and power in a psychological sense. The authors of the famous work “Psychology of Attitude Change and Social Influence” F. Zimbardo and M. Leippe write: “The process of social influence implies such behavior of a person that has as its consequence - or even only the intention - a change in the way of action of another person, his feelings or thoughts in relation to some stimulus” (Zimbardo and Leippe, 1991, p. 3).

The psychological phenomena of influence and power are so closely related that this is sometimes manifested in the definitions of these concepts. Thus, the author of one of the modern American textbooks on social psychology is S. Franzoi (Franzoi, 1996, p. 258).

A person who is a source of social influence is usually called an agent (subject) of influence. The recipient or potential recipient of an attempt to influence is called a “target” (object of influence). In this case, power is understood as the presence of force at the disposal of an agent of influence in order to motivate a certain change in the “target”. The power of a person stems from the presence of certain opportunities (for example, reward, punishment, information), due to his social position in society, or the fact that this person is liked by others and is an object of admiration.

Although power is broadly defined simply as the ability to exert influence, the concepts of power and influence should not be equated. Typically, power is associated with some kind of coercion, even in a mild form. In the most extreme case, the presence of power presupposes a situation of forced domination. At the same time, people on whom the influence of power is directed have no alternatives other than submission. When we talk about influence, we usually mean the transfer of information in order to change the opinion or behavior of an individual (group of individuals). Moreover, these individuals have more than one alternative as a response.

The relationship between the one who exerts the influence and the one who is the object of it was vividly illustrated by F. Heider, describing two actions by which the hand can influence the movement of the ball: “In one case the ball is hit so that it simply flies to the other side of the sports ground. In another case, the ball is directed by the hand and its entire movement depends at each moment on the movement of the hand... In the first case, the influence from the outside appears only once... In the other case, when the ball is directed throughout its entire movement, the course of events is subject to a continuous influence from the outside" (Heider , 1959. P. 4-5).

So, any influence begins with the agent exercising it. When influencing a “target” with a specific purpose, he inevitably asks himself the following question: how long does he need to carry out this influence in order to achieve the goal? Thus, B. Raven and D. Rubin note, parents, trying to convince their child to spend less time watching television, of course, strive to change his behavior. However, we note that the father or mother generally wants much more than just this. Parents want their child to change their attitudes towards television, just like their behavior. As in Haider's example, when it comes to the first ball, the father would like to take the first step and then expect the child to be socially independent from him. If, however, the child watches less time on television simply because the parent is constantly influencing him, as in the case of a second, constantly directed ball, then the change that occurs will be socially dependent.

So, socially dependent influence consists in the fact that the individual, as an object of influence, not only undergoes certain changes, but also continues to associate his new behavior, opinions or attitudes with the agent of influence. This phenomenon is the opposite of socially independent influence, in which the final change is carried out without regard to dependence on the influencer (Raven and Rubin, 1983).

Based on their many years of research, Zimbardo and Leippe note the following characteristic features of the social-psychological approach to influence:

1. focusing on individual behavior and mental processes;
2. emphasizing the significance of social situations as the causes of this or that behavior;
3. the assumption that perceptions of social situations have a greater influence on behavior than objective reality;
4. reliance on scientific methods of data collection and evaluation (Zimbardo and Leippe, 1991, p. 40).

The most notable beginning of socio-psychological research on influence and power were the well-known experiments conducted under the leadership of K. Lewin in the USA in the late 30s. They revealed the features of group dynamics in conditions of different, experimentally created “social climates”. The main factor shaping a particular “climate” was leadership style (Lewin and Lippitt, 1938). Lewin viewed power as the ability to exert influence over someone or, more formally, as the maximum influence that individual A can exert on individual B divided by the maximum resistance that B can exert (Lewin, 1941).

Following Lewin's original concept, French and Raven defined influence as the force that one individual (agent) exerts over someone else (the "target") to cause some change in the "target", including changes in behavior, opinions, attitudes , goals, needs and values. Social power is defined as the potential ability of an agent to influence the “target”. Thus, influence is “kinetic power, while power is potential influence” (French and Raven 1959: 152).

An important indicator of power is the amount of control that an individual or group of individuals has over other individuals or groups. Thus, power stems from the dependence of some people on others. The greater this dependence, the greater the potential power. If a person controls what you want, then he has power over you. According to many psychologists, this is precisely the most important sign of power.

The phenomenon of power is closely intertwined with the phenomenon of leadership. Clearly, leaders use power as a means to achieve group goals. The more power a leader has, the more successful his or her activities. However, the concepts of power and leadership also have significant differences. Power does not require coherence of goals, but only their dependence. In other words, the goals of those in control depend on the goals of those in power. Leadership, on the contrary, is possible only if there is a correspondence between the goals of the leader and the followers.