Interpersonal perception is in psychology

Introduction

Perception is a visual-figurative reflection of the objects and phenomena of reality currently acting on the senses, in the totality of their various properties and parts.
Perception, as a mental process, “is understood as both the subjective experience of receiving sensory information about the world of people, things and events, and those psychological processes through which this is accomplished.” The process of perceiving so-called social objects, which means other people, social groups, and large social communities, is called “social perception.” If we talk about the problem of mutual understanding between communication partners, then the term “interpersonal perception” or interpersonal perception would be more appropriate. The test will examine the phenomenon of interpersonal perception, its features and mechanisms.

Perceptual image

Types of figurative phenomena. Perceptual image

2 Perceptual image

Perceptual image refers to perception accompanied by correlation, interaction of sensory sensations and past experience. Understanding contributes to the rapid emergence of the correct perceptual image. The primary image is a set of impressions that are formed without any reminiscences - and previous experience and containing what follows from direct sensory sensations. Everything in our sensory perception that can be overcome and turned into its opposite is not a sensation. Everything that can be turned into its opposite is a product of experience and training. Pure sensation is only the qualities of sensation.

A perceptual image is a figure in perceptual space. In contrast to sensations, which correspond to properties, signs, and parameters of external influences, in perception the objective holistic coherence of the phenomenon is reproduced. If sensations are localized in space, the center of the coordinate axes of which is the human body (a certain analyzer), then perceptions are primarily characterized by being related to objective space, being externalized, and projecting images outward. But we get the opportunity to study perception as a certain kind of mental phenomenon only when we are able to differentiate the subjective and objective components of the image. The image of perception is, as a rule, a product of the integration of sensory data received from many receptors, and the subject’s own activity, his perceptual actions. In this sense, images of perception are more subjective than sensations that arise as the effect of predominantly extrapsychic influence. However, being projected into external space, their properties are experienced precisely as the properties of the object itself.

The main properties of perceptual images include objectivity, integrity, constancy. In this case, objectivity is interpreted as the reproducibility in the perceptual image of the coherence of its properties as properties of the object itself. In other words, perception is then complete when the result of subjective actions is the possibility of differentiating the objective and subjective components of the image. (Perceiving the edges (borders) of the image to be blurred, I understand that this is a consequence of a defect in my vision. Evaluating food as appetizing or unappetizing, I understand that this may be largely due to how hungry I am.) The concept of objectivity of perception also includes such a property of it as identifiability, i.e. awareness of the derivativeness of the image, its individual properties from the properties of the object as the source of its image, its characteristics. (We can talk about the perception of sound, when I perceive it, for example, as the sound of a passing car; about the perception of color, when I perceive it, for example, as the color of a ripe cherry, etc.)

The property of the integrity of a perceptual image is revealed when, for example, incompleteness or loss, distortion of any details of the image of an object do not interfere with its recognition (a word written with a “mistake”), when we group disparate details, structure an undivided totality so that they form a meaningful whole (a phrase written without gaps between words), or, conversely, we perceive some image as an image of an impossible object (for example, a Penrose figure). The property of the integrity of perception was first studied experimentally and psychologically by representatives of Gestalt psychology. In their studies, the integrity of perception was conceptualized precisely as a property of the perception process itself, as a mechanism that, according to its inherent laws, organizes the diversity of individual sensory data, like a gestalt. The laws of Gestalt were formulated: the gravitation of parts to form a symmetrical whole, the grouping of these parts in the direction of maximum simplicity and proximity, the tendency of each mental phenomenon to take on a more definite, distinct, complete form (pregnancy).

Constancy of perception is the relative constancy of the properties of perceived objects and situations with a significant change in the conditions of perception, i.e. then when a change in background characteristics within a certain range does not affect the magnitude of the attribute of the perceived figure. In other circumstances, the exact opposite effect occurs, but we qualify these cases as illusions of perception. The most well-known types of constancy are constancy of size, shape and color. The figure of a person who moves away from us from a distance of 3 meters to a distance of 30 meters does not become 10 times smaller for us, although his image on the retina of our eye has changed in exactly this way. If rings are presented to the subject at different angles in the line of sight, in a certain range they will be perceived as rings, although their projection on the retina will be an ellipse. A classic example is E. Hering: a piece of coal in the bright sun can reflect more light than chalk at dawn, nevertheless, coal in the sun will be perceived as black, and chalk at dawn as white.

One of the researchers who analyzed the problem of constancy was G. Helmholtz. From his point of view, the constancy of perception is the result of unconscious inferences. Thus, he explained the facts of the constancy of color perception by the fact that, seeing the same objects under different lighting, we form an idea of how this object will look in white light. Since our interest is entirely related to the constancy of the color of objects, we learn to ignore color changes due to changes in illumination. Helmholtz's theory can be classified as intellectualistic. His opponent was, in particular, E. Goering. He tried to explain the mechanisms of constancy by peripheral factors. The discussion, which began with the clash between the positions of Helmholtz and Hering, characterizes one of the main lines of development of all problems related to the sphere of perception. In particular, S.V. Kravkov conducted special studies in which data were obtained that contradicted the peripheral theory. He injected atropine into the eye, thereby eliminating the pupillary reflex, but the size remained constant.

Of great importance for understanding the mechanisms of perception are studies of illusions of perception, classic examples of which are illusions of weight, volume, and size. If the subject is asked several times in a row to lift simultaneously with both hands a pair of objects that differ noticeably in weight (volume), and then is given a pair of objects that are identical in weight (volume), then in the hand where the heavier object was previously, the weight will be perceived smaller. This illusion has an equivalent for visual perception. A tachistoscope is used to repeatedly expose a pair of unequal circles. A pair of identical circles then presented is assessed as unequal.

Problems of the psychology of perception are primarily problems of mental synthesis. It is important to understand (explain) how it is possible to construct and maintain the image of a significant object in the chaos of influences falling on the human body, how the signal is isolated from the noise, due to which the figure and background are separated. The study of the mechanisms of perception mainly went in the direction of identifying conditions leading to errors of perception and the emergence of illusions. It turned out that both errors and illusions arise if the time of perception is limited. It is no coincidence that numerous experiments have been carried out using the tachistoscope. At very short exposures, a lack of figure-ground differentiation was recorded; the impression of a homogeneous picture arose. As the exposure time increases, the boundaries of the exposed figure gradually become visible. finally, the perception will not take on a stable character. Another method of making an exhibited object noisier is used when the boundaries of figure and background are blurred due to spatial distance or when the exhibit is masked by other images. In this case, the subject is given the task of identifying an object named in the instructions, finding a specific route in a maze, etc.

The dependence of full-fledged perception on the preservation of the psychophysiological mechanisms of central synthesis is effectively demonstrated by the characteristics of perception in people who have a split brain. For example, Sperry (1968) demonstrated changes in perception when the corpus callosum is completely cut, i.e. when the transfer of information from one hemisphere to the other became impossible. Although such an operation does not usually cause any serious disturbance in daily behavior, it has been observed that people who have undergone this type of operation behave as if they had two brains. One of Sperry's experiments was as follows. In front of the subject there was a screen that covered his hands and on which images of various objects were projected, so that information entered either the right or left hemisphere. On the table, where the subject's hands were, there were objects that he could feel. In other words, the subject formed, as if independently of each other, visual and haptic images of objects in the same or in different hemispheres. It was found that the subject could, after feeling objects with his left hand, pick up one of them, the image of which briefly appeared on the left side of the screen, but he could neither name this object nor describe in words the actions of his left hand. When the image was projected onto the right side of the visual field and the right hand was used, this phenomenon was not observed. If different images were sent to different hemispheres at the same time and the subject was asked to select an object with his left hand, then he chose the object whose image was projected into the right hemisphere, but at the same time named the object that was projected into the left hemisphere. In other words, the image projected into the “speaking hemisphere” was called, in contradiction to the fact that the left hand selected an object, the image of which was projected into the right hemisphere.

Conclusion

Imaginative phenomena that arise in special conditions or in special people are divided into several types:

- image of perception - reflection in an ideal plan of an external object (scene), which affects the senses;

- image of imagination - a fictitious image that is presented in a performance;

- afterimage - a modified voluntary perception of an object that is presented and recently viewed with a strictly motionless gaze;

- eidetic image - a clear, complete and detailed representation of an object (scene) for a certain time after the cessation of its consideration, differs from the afterimage by its independence from eye movement and stability over time;

- phosphene - spontaneous light sensations;

- phantom - the feeling of a lost part of the body;

- hallucination - an illusory perception of an object that is really absent, subjectively inseparable from the image of perception.

A perceptual image in the psychology of perception is a set of related characteristics typical of a recognized object. For example, we recognize “tea” based on the smell, taste, touch, and bodily sensations it evokes. The characteristics of “tea” linked into one image in the mind is its perceptual image.

Literature

1. Vygotsky L.S. Thinking and speech. - M.: Nauka, 1956.

2. Ginzburg L.Ya. Oh Lyrics. — L.: Advice. writer, 1974.

3. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. T.1. - M.: Pedagogy, 1989.

4. Bruner J. Psychology of cognition. M.: Progress, 1977.

5. Velichkovsky B.M., Zinchenko V.P., Luria A.R. Psychology of perception. M.: MSU, 1973.

6. Gibson J. An ecological approach to visual perception. M.: Progress, 1988.

7. Neisser U. Cognition and reality: meaning and principles of cognitive psychology. M.: Progress, 1981.

8. Reader on general psychology. Issue III. Subject of knowledge. Rep. ed. V.V.Petukhov. M., 1998. pp. 93-141, 59-64, 221-228, 250-255.

Types of figurative phenomena. Perceptual image

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The concept of interpersonal perception

Speaking about interpersonal perception (interpersonal perception), S.L. Rubinstein noted that people, perceiving how they “read” another person, decipher the meaning of his external data. The impressions that arise from this play an important regulatory role in the process of human communication. The process of perception by one person (observer) of another (observed) unfolds as follows. In what is observed, only external signs are available to the observer, among which the most informative are appearance (physical qualities plus appearance) and behavior (actions performed and expressive reactions). Perceiving these qualities, the observer evaluates them in a certain way and makes some conclusions (often unconsciously) about the internal psychological properties of the communication partner. The sum of properties attributed to the observed, in turn, gives a person the opportunity to form a certain attitude towards it. This attitude is most often of an emotional nature and is located within the “like-dislike” continuum.

There are four main functions of interpersonal perception:

self-knowledge

cognition of communication partner

organization of joint activities

establishing emotional relationships

Interpersonal perception is usually described as a three-component structure. It includes:

subject of interpersonal perception

object of interpersonal perception

the process of interpersonal perception itself.

Regarding the subject and object of interpersonal perception, traditional research has established more or less complete agreement in terms of what characteristics should be taken into account in studies of interpersonal perception. For the subject of perception, all characteristics are divided into two classes: physical and social. In turn, social characteristics include external (formal role characteristics and interpersonal role characteristics) and internal (system of personality dispositions, structure of motives, etc.). Accordingly, the same characteristics are recorded in the object of interpersonal perception. The content of interpersonal perception depends on the characteristics of both the subject and the object of perception because they are included in a certain interaction, which has two sides: evaluating each other and changing some characteristics of each other due to the very fact of their presence. Interpretation of another person's behavior can be based on knowledge of the reasons for that behavior. But in everyday life, people do not always know the real reasons for another person’s behavior. Then, in conditions of a lack of information, they begin to attribute to each other both the reasons for behavior and some characteristics of the communities. Thus, the content of the process of cognition of another person becomes the process of this attribution, i.e., causal attribution. Research has shown that the extent to which an inference is consistent with what is observed regarding someone's behavior also depends on the different types of attribution: “personal” or “impersonal.” In the first case, we mean the prevailing desire to attribute the causes of certain events to the actions of certain individuals, while in the second case, the causes are attributed primarily to the actions of circumstances.

General characteristics of perception, perceptual image.

General characteristics of perception, perceptual image.

Perception is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact on our senses. Perception is an active process of reflecting the surrounding world, closely related to the activities performed by a person. An important component of perception are movements: movements of the eyes examining an object; movement of the hand feeling or manipulating an object; movements of the larynx that produce a hearing sound, etc.

Different types of perception have their own specific patterns. Along with them, there are also general patterns of perception: integrity, constancy, objectivity, structure, meaningfulness and generality, selectivity, apperception.

The perceptual system is a set of analyzers that provide a given act of perception) to compensate for these changes, we perceive surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, size, color, etc.

17 Basic properties of perception: Integrity of perception is a property of perception, consisting in the fact that any object or spatial objective situation is perceived as a stable systemic whole. Constancy is the relative constancy of the perception of an image. The image of the size of an object on the retina of the eye when it is perceived from close and far distances will be different. Objectivity of perception means adequacy, correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality. Thanks to the objectivity of perception, an object is perceived by us as a separate physical body. Structurality of perception is the property of human perception to combine influencing stimuli into holistic and relatively simple structures. The meaningfulness of perception is determined by understanding the connection between objects and phenomena through the process of thinking. Everything we perceive, we comprehend from the point of view of existing knowledge and accumulated experience. The meaningfulness of perception is manifested in recognition . To recognize an object means to perceive it in relation to a previously formed image. Selectivity is the preferential selection of some objects over others in the process of perception. Most often, selectivity of perception manifests itself in the preferential selection of an object from the background. Apperception. Dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, interests and attitudes of the individual. There are personal and situational apperception. Personal apperception determines the dependence of perception on the education and beliefs of the individual. Situational apperception is temporary, it affects emotions, attitudes, etc. So, for example, at night in the forest a stump can be perceived by a person as the figure of an animal and contribute to the appearance of corresponding emotions in him.

Classification of perception

The classification of perception is based on the following criteria: the leading analyzer in perception; the degree of organization; the direction of perception; the form of reflection. In accordance with which analyzer plays the leading role in a given perception, they distinguish: visual , auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory, taste perceptions . Any perception is determined by the activity of not one, but several analyzers. Depending on the purpose of perception, there are intentional and unintentional ones.

Intentional perceptions are characterized by the fact that they are based on a consciously set goal. They are associated with volitional efforts. Unintentional perceptions are those perceptions in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specifically set task. There is also no volitional activity in it, which is why it is called involuntary. According to the degree of organization, perceptions can be organized and unorganized. Organized perception is an organized, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world. Disorganized perception is the usual unintentional perception of the surrounding reality. According to the direction of perception, there are externally directed and internally directed . Externally directed perception

- this is the perception of objects and phenomena of the external world, and
internally directed - the perception of one’s own thoughts and feelings. According to the form of existence of matter reflected in perception, they distinguish: *perception of space, objects, phenomena of the surrounding world; *perception of a person by a person; *perception of time; *perception of movements.
22. perception of space: linear and aerial perspectives. Linear and aerial perspectives are essential when perceiving space .

With linear perspective, receding lines seem to converge at the horizon. Linear perspective is enhanced by the weakening of the difference between light and shadow, as well as the loss of individual small details. According to the laws of linear perspective, the sizes of objects decrease as they move away. Aerial perspective assumes different perceptions of objects of reality depending on a particular state of the air and the nature of the light source. The influence of the nature of the illumination source in aerial perspective is presented as follows. When moving away from the observer, the illuminated surfaces darken, and the shaded ones turn pale, becoming a pale gray silhouette. On the contrary, the closer they are to the observer, the more contrast the chiaroscuro is; illuminated surfaces appear lighter, and shaded surfaces appear darker. Spatial perspective is also determined by the density gradient. The ability to correctly assess the spatial relationships of objects is called the eye. There are static and dynamic eye gauges. Static eye meter - determining the size of stationary objects taking into account their distance. Dynamic eye - the ability to determine the distance between moving objects.

21. Perception of size, shape and volume of objects

The perception of the size, shape and volume of objects is due to the joint activity of visual, muscle and tactile sensations. The basis for the perception of the size of objects is the size of objectively existing objects, the images of which are obtained on the retina. The peculiarity of the structure of the human eye is such that the image of an object located at a far distance will be smaller than the image of an equal object located close to us. Shape perception is a complex process of visual perception in which eye movements are of great importance. In this case, optical data is processed by the brain in combination with data from the extraocular muscles of the eyes. When perceiving the shape of an object, its interaction with the background is essential. At the same time, the clarity of perception is facilitated by the sharp delineation of the contour of the object. Direct perception of the shape of an object and its relief occurs through touch, in which the skin and motor analyzers take part. of the three-dimensionality of objects based on binocular vision (vision using two eyes). With this vision, two images are obtained on the retina of the left and right eyes. Simultaneous vision of an object with both eyes creates the impression of the volume of the perceived object. When objects are significantly removed from us, when their images on both retinas lose their differences, we do not perceive the three-dimensionality of objects, but only think of them as three-dimensional on the basis of ideas preserved from viewing at a close distance. In this case, the laws of perspective and light and shade are of great importance. It is known that in a flat picture, guided by the rules of perspective and light and shade, it is possible to depict objects in such a way that they will be perceived as three-dimensional.

23. Depth perception is achieved primarily through binocular vision, i.e. seeing with two eyes. The perception of the distance of an object depends not only on the size of its image on the retina, but also on the strength of the tension of the eye muscles and the curvature of the lens. When perceiving distant objects, the lens becomes flat. When perceiving close objects, its curvature increases. This change in the curvature of the lens depending on the distance of the objects in question is called accommodation. We cannot correctly perceive the distance to objects significantly distant from us with the help of only one eye. Monocular vision allows us to correctly estimate distance only when objects are no more than 30 meters away from us. This is explained by the fact that accommodation (i.e., change in curvature) of the lens of the eye, which plays a major role in assessing distance with monocular vision, provides clear vision only at a close distance from us. In the perception of distance at distances to an object of more than 30 meters with binocular vision The mechanism of eye convergence plays an important role . Muscular-motor sensations during eye convergence allow us to judge which objects are closer and which are further from us. The processes of accommodation and convergence occur involuntarily. A person does not think about the need to focus the image; this process occurs automatically. He, as a rule, does not notice that when moving his gaze from close to distant objects (or vice versa), significant changes occur in the organ of vision. Nevertheless, these changes can be observed in the following simple experiment. Close one eye and look into the distance with the other, at the horizon line, then place a pencil or pen in front of this eye at a distance of 30–40 cm. If you focus your attention on the horizon line, the horizon will be visible clearly and clearly, but the pencil will be blurry and blurry. When you turn your attention to the pencil, the pencil will be clearly visible, but the horizon will blur and be unclear.

24. Perception of objects: perceptual activity Techniques for image recognition: 1) simplification of the image 2) creation of competing images 3) creation of images devoid of a specific meaning. One of the main features of all phenomena of perception is the tendency to selectively highlight and organize data received by the senses. When interpreting visual information We identify any groupings as units, each of which has a distinctive feature. Preventing information organization is difficult. The interpretation of sensory data is governed by the following rules: 1) identification of features 2) interpretation of features as a whole . The identification of features of objects when interpreting sensory data is based on: 1) continuous eye movement 2) the emergence of successive images . Perceptual tasks are the demands that an activity makes and perceives . To perceive means to solve one or another perceptual problem. In order for a perceptual task to be solved, the necessary perceptual actions . Perceptual actions are derived from practical actions. Perceptual actions are based structured processes that ensure the construction of an object image. Perceptual actions are implemented using a set of perceptual operations. ACTIVITY à ACTION à OPERATION . An important factor in the development of a perceptual image in children is the development of sensory standards. A special place in the formation of a perceptual image is occupied by the formation of operational units of perception. The operational unit of perception is the identification of single objects in the perceptual field. The development of perception is associated with a change in the units of the perceptual image. Opera. The images of objects gradually become unified. Thanks to this, the possibility of instantaneous perception arises.

25. The perception of a person by a person is a concept used in social psychology to designate the process of constructing an image of another person, which unfolds during direct communication with him. Includes all levels of mental reflection. This process has special time characteristics. Initially, when perceiving a stranger, the main attention is paid to his appearance (facial expression, eyes, hairstyle, expressive body movements). As the process of perceiving a person unfolds, ideas about his character traits, abilities, interests, and emotional states are formed, which are very often grouped around the professional characteristics of the individual. There are four main strategies in perceiving another person: 1. Analytical, in which each element of appearance is interpreted as a form of manifestation of a personality trait (presence of glasses - scientist); 2. Emotional, in which directly non-perceivable personality traits are interpreted depending on overall attractiveness or unattractiveness; 3. Perceptual-associative, in which the properties of another person who is outwardly similar are attributed; 4. Social-associative, in which the properties of the social group to which a person can be attributed are attributed.

26. Perception of Time Perception of time is a reflection of the objective duration, speed and sequence of phenomena of reality. At the heart of V. century. lies the rhythmic alternation of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral hemispheres. In V. century. Various analyzers are involved, the most accurate differentiation of time intervals is provided by kinesthetic and auditory sensations. I.M. Sechenov called hearing a time meter, and auditory memory the memory of time. The subjective perception of long periods of time is largely determined by the nature of the experiences with which they were filled and the emotional state of the subject. Time filled with interesting, deeply motivated activity seems shorter than time spent doing nothing. However, in a retrospective report, the ratio may. the opposite: time spent in idleness and boredom seems shorter when remembered after some time. Positive emotions give the illusion of rapid passage of time, they deny. — subjectively they stretch the time intervals somewhat. At the cultural level, L. N. Gumilyov identified 7 types of time counting and relationships to it: atemporality, phenological and cyclic calendars, living chronology and linear counting, quantization and relativization of time.. In his long-term studies, Sov. psychologist D. G. Elkin showed that a person, throughout his cultural development, gradually assimilates social standards of duration that make up a system of time scales and measures. Such mediation allows not only to more accurately evaluate various intervals, but also to go far beyond the capabilities of direct V. century. T. o., V. v. is based, on the one hand, on the signal value of the temporal characteristics of one’s own voluntary movements and the rhythms of involuntary vegetative processes (“biological clock”), as natural measures by which time is assessed; on the other hand, on the historically developing system of social standards and technical means. See Perceptions of time disturbance. (B.M.)

27 . The perception of motion is a reflection of a change in the position of an object in space and time, i.e. its direction and speed. It is the result of the simultaneous reflection of both an object and an event. Currently, two hypotheses that explain the mechanism of motion perception are most widely recognized in psychology: 1. The perception of motion is caused by the movement of images of objects on the retina. This hypothesis better explains the so-called “real (physical) movement,” the mechanism of which is based on the stroboscopic effect. The image of an object appears on the retina as the perceptual field of a static eye. Then, images of moving objects move across the retina in accordance with the animation effect. However, the above hypothesis is not able to explain, for example, the phi phenomenon , i.e. M. Wertheimer's pseudo-motion effect . Alternating flashes of semaphore lights are perceived by us as moving lights. In this case, the human eye is moving, but the real object, on the contrary, is static. It is impossible to distinguish a really moving object from a really stationary object (the illusion of the moon moving against the background of moving clouds).2. The perception of motion is the result of eye movement. Thus, in an experiment by the American psychologist L. Matin, subjects were instilled with a chemical substance that caused temporary paralysis of the eye muscles. As a result, moving objects were perceived by a static eye, and the subjects experienced a “jumping world” effect. Based on this hypothesis, it is difficult to explain provoked movement, when a moving object causes the movement of another – stationary – object. For example, an illustration of the theory of relativity: a moving train outside the window and you inside a stationary carriage. You can also cite the results of a study of autokinetic (self-regulating) movement. After some time, a stationary luminous point in a dark room is perceived by the subjects as moving. At the same time, the “naive” subject sincerely believes that the luminous point is moving, while it remains motionless. Apparently, the features of our perception in this case can be explained on the basis of the law of “figure and background” . Movement occurs when an object is perceived as a figure relative to the background created by another object. Therefore, the reflection of the distance between objects (i.e. eye movement) and its movement along the retina (disappearance of the autokinetic effect when we fix the image of an object on the retina) is important

28. Apperception - the influence on the perception of objects in the surrounding world of the individual’s previous experience and attitudes. The term “apperception” was introduced by G. Leibniz, who distinguished perception as a vague presentation of some content and apperception as a clear and distinct, conscious vision of this content by the soul. After G. Leibniz, the concept of apperception was used primarily in German philosophy (I. Kant, I. Herbart, W. Wundt, etc.), where it was considered a manifestation of the spontaneous activity of the soul and the source of a single stream of consciousness. W. Wundt turned this concept into a universal explanatory principle. In Gestalt psychology, apperception was interpreted as the structural integrity of perception. The role of attitudes This role is especially significant when forming the first impression of a stranger. So, in the experiment, two groups of student subjects were shown a photograph of the same person, but one group was told that this was an image of a dangerous criminal, and the second group that this was an image of a famous scientist. In the subsequent verbal portrait of the object of perception, the same features were characterized in different ways: in one case, deeply sunken eyes allegedly testified to hidden anger, and in the other, to the depth of thought, etc. Stereotyping in some cases leads to a certain simplification of the cognition process each other's people. In other cases, stereotyping leads to the formation of prejudice. If a person's perception is built on the basis of past experience, and this experience was negative, then any subsequent perception of people of the same group can be colored by hostility, harming the interaction of people. Thus, with the aggravation of ethnic conflicts in modern conditions, ethnic stereotypes are very common among the population, when, based on limited information about individual representatives of any ethnic groups, biased conclusions are drawn about the entire group.

29. Attention is the selective focus of perception on a particular object. Types of attention Depending on the presence of a conscious choice of direction and regulation, they are distinguished: Involuntary attention (passive) A type of attention in which there is no conscious choice of direction and regulation. It is based on unconscious human attitudes. As a rule, short-term, quickly turning into arbitrary. The occurrence of involuntary attention can be caused by the peculiarity of the influencing stimulus, and also be determined by the correspondence of these stimuli to past experience or the mental state of a person. Voluntary attention Its occurrence is historically associated with the labor process. The psychological feature of voluntary attention is that it is accompanied by the experience of greater or lesser volitional effort and tension, and long-term maintenance of voluntary attention causes fatigue, often even greater than physical tension. Post-voluntary attention A type of attention in which there is a conscious choice of the object of attention, but there is no tension characteristic of voluntary attention. Associated with the formation of a new attitude, associated to a greater extent with current activity rather than with a person’s previous experience (as opposed to involuntary). Properties of attention: Concentration ( Concentration of attention is understood as the intensity of concentration of consciousness on an object) Volume (a number of objects can be perceived simultaneously and with equal clarity) Stability ( the opposite of it is lability - characterized by the duration during which concentration of attention is maintained at the same level .) Switchability (changing the direction of consciousness from one object to another). Distribution ( Ability to hold several heterogeneous objects or subjects in the spotlight)

35. Voluntary (intentional) attention is an active, purposeful concentration of consciousness, maintaining the level of which is associated with certain volitional efforts necessary to combat stronger influences. Voluntary attention depends on the state of the nervous system and is determined by motivational factors: the strength of the need, attitude towards the object of cognition and attitude. This type of attention is necessary for mastering skills; performance depends on it. Based on this, voluntary attention is distinguished by the following characteristics : - Purposefulness .

Voluntary attention is determined by the tasks that a person sets for himself in a particular activity
. -Organization .
With voluntary attention, a person prepares in advance to be attentive to one or another object, consciously directs his attention to this object, and demonstrates the ability to organize the mental processes necessary for this activity
. -Increased stability .
Intentional attention allows you to organize work for a more or less long time; it is associated with the planning of this work. Voluntary attention requires significant energy expenditure, and therefore, with a narrow focus on one, especially insignificant object, tires a person faster than involuntary attention.

30. Physiological foundations of attention From a physiological point of view, attention is nothing more than the nervous activity of a certain part of the cerebral cortex, which at a given moment and under given conditions has optimal (i.e., the best under given circumstances) excitability, while the rest areas of the cortex are in a state of more or less reduced excitability. In areas of the cortex with optimal excitability, new conditioned reflex connections are easily formed and differentiations are successfully developed. This explains the clarity and distinctness of mental processes accompanied by attention. Areas of the cortex with optimal excitability are the creative department of the cerebral hemispheres at the moment. They constantly move throughout the entire space of the cerebral hemispheres, depending on the stimulation received during this activity. Accordingly, areas with reduced excitability also change in size and constantly move in the cortex. To explain the physiological mechanisms of attention, the principle of dominance put forward by A.A. Ukhtomsky is of certain importance. At any given moment, in the cerebral cortex there is an area (focus) with increased nervous excitability, dominant (dominant) over the remaining parts of the cortex. Under certain conditions (optimal degree of excitation), it is enhanced by other nerve impulses, usually causing other reactions. For example, rhythmically weak sounds, which under normal conditions evoke an orienting reflex, in the presence of a dominant focus associated with the reading process, contribute to its intensification and, thus, increase the concentration of attention. However, at the maximum degree of nervous excitation in the dominant focus, side impulses not only do not contribute to its strengthening, but also cause parabiotic inhibition in it and, thus, lead to disruption of concentration.

31. Theories of attention in Western psychology Motor (motor-emotional) theory of attention T. Ribot . believed that involuntary and voluntary attention is directly determined by the intensity and duration of emotional states associated with the object of attention. Attention, according to the French psychologist, is a psychological immobility that contradicts the normal flow of life processes. E. Titchener introduced an additional metaphor to explain the phenomenon of attention - the wave metaphor . Thus, he emphasized the intermittent nature of attention, i.e. argued that at any given time only one content reaches the “crest of the wave of attention” (apperception). He described the phenomenon of “ accommodation ” of attention - the preferential apperception of that content that is better consistent with the previous one. E. Titchener also created one of the earliest classifications of attention. According to the degree of voluntariness, he distinguished primary (involuntary) and secondary attention. In the case of primary attention, new unexpected or, on the contrary, contents that are firmly connected with the flow of our thoughts literally “take our consciousness by storm.” We are able to maintain secondary attention only with the help of effort. W. Wundt’s is the measurement of the volume of consciousness: about six associatively connected objects. To measure the volume of consciousness, he used a melodic series, including a different number of bars. V. Wundt suggested that only the beat perceived at the moment is in the focus of consciousness, and all the others are held due to associative connections with the focus. To describe the content of consciousness (and attention), W. Wundt used the terms proposed by G. Leibniz : “ perception ” and “ apperception ”. He called perception the entry of content into consciousness, apperception - focusing attention on a specific object, i.e. its entry into the focus of consciousness. According to V. Wundt , our ability to realize is not constant and depends on the nature of the perceived material. If we perceive a set of random elements, the volume of consciousness and attention coincide. The boundary of consciousness becomes the boundary of attention (attention = consciousness).

34. Involuntary (unintentional) attention occurs without a person’s intention to see or hear anything, without a predetermined goal, without effort of will. Involuntary attention is caused by external reasons. The features due to which external objects can attract our attention are as follows. Stimulus intensity .

An object that is stronger than another, simultaneously acting on the body, is more likely to attract attention to itself.
Novelty, unusualness of objects. Objects that do not stand out for their intensity attract attention if only they are new to us. Abrupt changes
, as well as
the dynamism
of objects
, are often observed during complex and long-lasting actions, for example, when watching sports.
Unintentional attention is characterized by the following main features: - With unintentional attention, a person does not first prepare for a given perception or action. - Unintentional attention occurs suddenly, immediately following the impact of irritation and in its intensity is determined by the characteristics of the irritations that caused it. Unintentional attention is fleeting: it lasts as long as the corresponding stimuli act, and if the necessary measures are not taken to consolidate it in the form of intentional attention, it stops. 32. Theories of attention in Russian psychology Russian psychologist N.N. Lange defined attention as “a purposeful reaction of the body that instantly improves the conditions of perception.” It is the criterion of instantaneity that makes it possible to separate attention from other adaptive reactions of the body. According to the scientist, the act of attention has three phases: primary attention, a reaction that improves perception, and improved perception itself. The second name of this theory - the concept of volitional attention - becomes obvious if we turn to the one proposed by N.N. Lange classification of types of attention. Thus, reflexive attention is devoid of an emotional component and is carried out automatically (for example, pupil dilation in a dark room). N.N. Lange believed that a weak sensation, connecting with a vivid memory image, acquires an intensity sufficient for the emergence of the process of perception, which is difficult in dementia. This is why we often see or hear what we want, and not what is actually happening. The tradition of considering attention together with perception has not lost its relevance and is presented in many foreign textbooks on psychology. Concepts by P.Ya. Halperin are reduced to the following: 1. Attention is one of the moments of orientation-research activity. It is a psychological action aimed at the content of an image, thought, or other phenomenon existing at a given moment in the human psyche.2. By its function, attention is the control of this content. Every human action has an orienting, performing and control part. This latter is represented by attention as such.3. Unlike other activities that produce a specific product, the activity of control, or attention, does not have a separate, special result.4. Attention as an independent, concrete act is highlighted only when the action becomes not only mental, but also abbreviated. Not all control should be considered attention. Control only evaluates the action, while attention helps improve it.5. In attention, control is carried out using a criterion, measure, sample, which creates the opportunity to compare the results of an action and clarify it.6. Voluntary attention is systematically carried out attention, i.e., a form of control carried out according to a pre-drawn up plan or pattern.7. In order to form a new method of voluntary attention, we must, along with the main activity, offer a person the task of checking its progress and results, developing and implementing an appropriate plan.8. All known acts of attention, performing the function of control, both voluntary and involuntary, are the result of the formation of new mental actions.

33 . Properties of attention. Focus is maintaining attention on one object or one action while distracting from everything else. Concentration of attention depends on age and work experience, as well as on the state of the nervous system. An indicator of concentration and attention is its resistance to interference, determined by the strength of an extraneous stimulus that can distract attention from the subject of activity. Sustainability of attention is the duration of concentration on an object or phenomenon or maintaining the required intensity of attention for a long time. Depends on the individual physiological characteristics of the body, on the mental state, on motivation, on external circumstances. Distractibility is the opposite of stability. In contrast to switching, which is done intentionally and voluntarily, attention is always distracted involuntarily and more often when exposed to strong extraneous stimuli. The intensity of attention is characterized by a relatively greater expenditure of nervous energy to perform a given type of activity .

in connection with which the mental processes involved in this activity proceed with greater clarity, clarity and speed. The intensity of attention is expressed in great concentration and allows us to achieve better quality of the actions performed.
Fluctuations of attention are expressed in the periodic change of objects to which it is drawn. Fluctuations in attention are explained by fatigue of the nerve centers during activities performed with intense attention. The span of attention is characterized by the number of objects or their elements that can be simultaneously perceived with the same degree of clarity and distinctness at one moment .
The more objects or their elements are perceived at one moment, the greater the volume of attention; The average volume of attention is 5±2 units in children, 7±2 units in adults.
Distribution of attention is the ability of an individual to simultaneously perform two or more types of activities. Switchability of attention is the ability to quickly switch off from certain types of activities and engage in new types of activities that correspond to changed conditions.
The ability to switch attention depends on the mobility of the nervous system. Depends on temperament. 36. The characteristic of post-voluntary attention is already contained in its very name: it occurs after voluntary attention, but is qualitatively different from it. When problems appear when solving a problem

Apperception of perception - examples

A good example of apperception of perception in psychology can be cited from those that almost everyone has encountered. A person working as an editor, reading posts on social networks, will constantly notice mistakes; a hairdresser-colorist, when meeting a woman whose hair is colored, will primarily pay attention to the coloring, its quality, details, etc. Apperception is what we perceive at the moment depending on the internal state and previously accumulated experience.

Other examples of apperception:

A person is hungry and instead of “shoes” on a sign he may read “lunch”.
If you hang a sign in the classroom “Don’t get excited!”, then everyone will read it as “Don’t talk!”, that is, the person will not read what is written, but in fact, he will recognize it because he has already encountered it once.
Looking through the TV program to find the broadcast time of a football match, he is unlikely to answer the question of what time the series will premiere.

Apperception and perception - the difference

The concepts of perception and apperception in psychology have similarities, because both mean perception, but they are distinguished by the characteristics of this human ability.

Perception is a vague perception that has not yet reached consciousness, associated largely with the senses. It is unconscious, blurry, primitive.
Apperception is conscious, meaningful, it is clarity of consciousness when we perceive something very clearly and are aware of what we perceive.

Types of apperception

Apperception of perception was studied by many outstanding scientists and each contributed to uncovering the issue of this concept and systematizing the knowledge gained. Thus, I. Kant identified two types of apperception: empirical and transcendental. This classification option is used by many modern scientists who completely agree with Kant’s theory.

Transcendental apperception

This term from Kant’s theory means that transcendental apperception is something that is a priori inherent in the subject, it is a unity of self-consciousness that does not depend on the experience gained, but is the basis for obtaining all knowledge. According to Kant, the unity of apperception, which we consider as a priori transcendental, initially exists as an inherent human property. It does not depend in any way on accumulated experience and knowledge; it is fundamental, self-evident and provides the basis for obtaining and accumulating new knowledge.

Empirical apperception

In contrast to transcendental, empirical apperception is nothing more than the subjective unity of consciousness, which arises due to some other reasons than in the first case. These reasons are accumulated experience and knowledge, which are essentially secondary and depend on a variety of personal characteristics. That is, the subject perceives something thanks to previously acquired knowledge, associations with something, in fact, he perceives by recognizing. However, the primary thing is a priori, transcendental, which made it possible for the emergence of the empirical.

The concept of perception. Perceptual actions.

Perception (perceptual process) is a cognitive mental process that provides a holistic reflection of objects, situations and events that arises from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the senses.

The physiological basis of perception is the complex activity of analyzers.

Perception is based on sensations, but perception cannot be reduced to a simple sum of sensations. When perceiving, we not only identify a group of sensations and combine them into a single image, but also comprehend this image, drawing on past experience, i.e. perception is inextricably linked with memory and thinking. Thus, perception is involved in the reception of information and, together with sensations, provides sensory orientation in the surrounding world.

The process of perception occurs in close connection with other mental processes: thinking (we realize what is in front of us), speech (we designate an object with a word), memory, attention, will (we organize the process of perception), is guided by motivation, has an affective-emotional coloring (how - this is how we relate to what we perceive).

Perception is a more complex process than sensations. Perception is not a passive copying of an instantaneous impact, but a living, creative process of cognition, a complex activity, an important part of which is movement. If the eye is motionless, it stops seeing the object; to pronounce sounds, tension in the muscles of the larynx is necessary; to know the properties of the object, it must be examined - using hand movements.

There are 4 levels of perceptual action:

1) detection (is there a stimulus?);

2) discrimination (formation of a perceptual image of the standard) - these two actions are perceptual;

3) identification – identification of a perceived object with an image stored in memory;

4) recognition – assigning an object to a certain class of objects previously perceived; the last two actions are related to identification.

Thus, perception is a system of perceptual actions, the mastery of which requires special training and practice.

Perceptual actions are the basic structural units of the human perception process. They are associated with the conscious identification of one or another aspect of a sensory given situation, as well as various kinds of transformations of sensory information, leading to the creation of an image adequate to the tasks of the activity and the objective world.

Perceptual actions that serve to construct the same perceptual image can be realized using different sets of perceptual operations.

General properties of perception: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness, apperception.

Properties of perception. The most important properties of perception are objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy and meaningfulness.

The objectivity of perception is expressed in the so-called act of objectification, i.e. in relating information received from the outside world to this world. Without such reference, perception cannot perform its orienting and regulatory function in human practical activity. Objectivity of perception is not an innate quality; There is a certain system of actions that provides the subject with the discovery of the objectivity of the world.

Another feature of perception is its integrity. Unlike sensation, which reflects the individual properties of an object affecting the sense organ, perception is a holistic image of an object. Of course, this holistic image is formed on the basis of a generalization of knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of an object, obtained in the form of various sensations.

The integrity of perception is associated with its structure. Perception to a large extent does not correspond to our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We actually perceive a generalized structure abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over some time.

Constancy of perception. The property of constancy is explained by the fact that perception is a kind of self-regulating action that has a feedback mechanism and adapts to the characteristics of the perceived object and the conditions of its existence. The constancy of perception formed in the process of objective activity is a necessary condition for human life and activity. Thanks to the property of constancy, which consists in the ability of the perceptual system (the perceptual system is a set of analyzers that provide a given act of perception) to compensate for these changes, we perceive surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, size, color, etc.

Meaningfulness of perception. Although perception arises as a result of the direct impact of a stimulus on receptors, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. Human perception is closely connected with thinking, with understanding the essence of an object. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. attribute the perceived object to a certain group, class of objects, and summarize it in words.

The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, his past experience, and the characteristics of his personality is called apperception. When we perceive an object, traces of past perceptions are also activated.

Apperception in psychology

We found out that apperception in psychology is a person’s perception of certain objects and phenomena with the help of skills and knowledge acquired earlier. In the modern world of philosophy and psychology, two types of apperception are distinguished: temporary and stable (permanent), as the main ones, and social apperception - a special type, derived and proposed by the American psychologist Bruner.

Temporal apperception

We can say that temporary apperception is emotional, caused by those feelings, emotions and moods that a person experiences at any particular moment. It arises situationally and is influenced by emotional attitudes. That is, in this case, apperceptive is of a temporary nature, and not permanent, it can constantly change along with the mood of the subject.

Sustained apperception

During the study of the phenomenon, a stable type was identified. This is a constant apperception, which depends on the existing characteristics of an individual person. This type of perception is influenced by indicators such as worldview, human habits, education and sophistication, level of intellectual development, and personal beliefs. Depending on the self-improvement of the subject, his intellectual and spiritual growth, stable perception can also change over time.

Social apperception

This separate type of apperception refers to the perception of society, and not of individual objects and phenomena. Social apperception involves the perception of entire social groups, however, the assessment of people in this case is more biased and subjective than when it comes to the apperceptive perception of objects, for example. This type of apperception is directly related to the social side of our life, when apperceptive behavior is disrupted, various kinds of negative phenomena arise that are harmful to society.

Perceptual features of the impact of advertising

In the second half of the twentieth century, advertising communication put forward a number of features of multiplication and multiplication in the space of advertising messages, the use of means of linguistic manipulation, the cultural and semiotic nature of influences, and the variability of forms.

In this article we will consider the essence of advertising, with its specific laws, its perceptual features of its impact on the consumer. Mass culture is focused on the average semiotic norm, since it is addressed to a large audience; it constitutes an entire science, occurring at the intersection of sociology, mathematics, logistics and psychology.

Advertising itself, as a type of message, determines its uniqueness by those three constructive components: verbal text, visuals and sound, which have manipulative and psychophysiological functions. Charles Peirce [1] made a great contribution to the development of the advertising message, namely, semiotics; he believed that advertising is a semiotic form of communication, that is, symbolic, every person is able to extract one or another text from the same advertisement. Ferdinand de Saussure, the famous scientific linguist [2] created the science of “semiology”; he wrote that signs are a whole science that represents the depth of a person’s thoughts, which he tries to convey, and which are necessarily conditional in nature. He identified levels of perception. [3]

– Visual

– Auditory

– Kinesthetic

Vision. Here, as an example, let’s take Aubade, a French lingerie brand [4]. He used a real silhouette of a young girl in the window, which in every possible way depicted the height of seduction. Mlle Chainsaw Noi, an agency that decided to influence men with the help of sexual fantasy, and spy on a girl in the window, all this action took place on the rue Montorgueil, in Paris. For a long time, one could observe a whole series of events taking place in the life of this very girl: she danced, drank wine, changed clothes, sighing languidly and drawing figure eights with her curvy hips. By the end of each erotic performance, the picture changed from the girl's shadow to the advertised site.

The advertising agency DDB New Zealand, in order to emphasize the uniqueness of the Travel Channel, took the idea of showing everyone how a resident of any other country sees the world. For this demonstration [5], they installed citylights with demos of foreign countries and continents. A simple inscription at the bottom: “Circle the world/citylight from the other side to see the world with different eyes.” And what provided this advertisement with intense interest was the fact that on the opposite side of the citylight there were several windows, looking into which, thanks to the built-in 5D glasses, the incredible nature of different countries and the cultures of all kinds of peoples of the world were revealed to anyone. Slogan: Bringing the world to you.

Hearing. The Pepsi company placed advertising in the subway, these were posters with audio format. The center of the poster contained a hole for headphones, where you could listen to music from popular advertising. The secret was that the player was placed there.

Smell. It was stated that a sufficiently strong aroma affects a person’s subconscious, causing certain emotions, like an aphrodisiac, causing sexual images, and then actions, for example, the purchase of a particular product.

Scent marketing [6] - the simplest example would be aroma samples in glossy magazines. You can put flavor into anything at this point.

Thus, the Scent Air company, being an ace in inventing fragrances for luxury fashion houses, has developed a project for Bloom stores, specialized in premium meat. They decided to influence physiology by inducing appetite: a billboard depicting fried lamb, and exuding the real smell of meat. This advertising company operated in the state of North Carolina. People passing by began to “drool” and finally decided to come in for lunch. The aroma was blown out from the back of the billboard using special aspirators and lured customers.

Touch. We know the types of sensations such as tactile, cold, heat and pain. And with the advent of advanced technologies, advertising began to appear that you can simultaneously smell, taste, listen to and watch. Such a PR company will definitely create a big sensation among the prospective buyer.

Taste. Sampling here is a very simple and common form of interaction in advertising. This is a traditional method, where a person’s taste buds are influenced by special samples of the company’s products, sending out samples, and the best thing is tasting. For a long time, this method of advertising was used only in product advertising. Still, the creative spirit of a talented advertiser can leave a pleasant aftertaste in any product category. Here we will talk about a company from the UK -

Pruhealth. It specializes in providing health insurance. The insurer's advertisement turned a bus stop into a dispensary that will give an orange to anyone who comes to the stop; approximately every minute a fruit is distributed, provided that the previous one has been taken away. Attached to each orange is a leaflet with an invitation to take a health test, free of charge, on the company’s website. Slogan: Help yourself (Help yourself, play on words - “Help yourself”).

It is worth saying that the simplest text in advertising should be interpreted by a person in his own way, depending on his intellectual preferences. Various hidden hourly experiences and so on also influence the communicative rationale. Any text in the communicative substantiation of advertising must be ultimately interpreted, that is, perceived by a person and interpreted in accordance with his level of training, with his special background knowledge, psychological and social attitude, permanent and momentary experiences, etc. Interpretation, writes the French philosopher P. Ricoeur [7], is the work of thinking, which consists in deciphering the meaning behind the obvious meanings, in revealing the levels of meaning contained in the literal meaning.

Sensations are of great importance in human life and in advertising messages, since, firstly, they provide communication with the outside world and are a constant source of knowledge about the environment.

Secondly, sensations are associated with the internal environment of the body; thanks to interoreception, the normal state of the body is maintained. And finally, sensations are associated with the needs of the body and, thanks to this, perform a regulatory function.

Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to all of them. These properties include quality, intensity, duration and spatial location.

Quality is the main feature of a given sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within a given type of sensation (one modality). Auditory sensations, for example, differ in pitch, timbre, and volume, while visual sensations differ in saturation and color tone.

The intensity of sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined both by the strength of the stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.

The duration of the sensation is also determined by the aftereffect, which consists in the fact that the sensation does not stop at the moment the stimulus ends, but continues for some time, which is manifested in the appearance of a sequential image. The duration of the inertia of sensation varies from 0.05 to 1 second.

Spatial localization of sensations gives a person information about the localization of the stimulus in space, if we are talking about distant receptors (visual, auditory, etc.), or correlates the sensation with the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus, in the case of contact receptors (tactile).

Modality is the main feature of this type of sensation, distinguishing it from other types. In the process of evolution, humans have formed the main eleven types of sensations that provide a holistic reflection of the world and optimal adaptation - these are visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile, temperature, motor, or kinesthetic, vestibular, or balance, vibration, pain, organic, or interoceptive . Each modality reflects various qualities, for example, in the visual modality such qualities as brightness, contrast, etc. are represented, in the auditory modality - pitch, timbre, volume of sound.

Carl Gustav Jung [8] believed that people perceive reality differently, based on the development and severity of such external “input” functions as sensation and intuition. He divided people into two groups. The first group relies in perception on events and facts that actually occur through the first signaling system, the senses, and their intuition function is very poorly developed and performs an auxiliary function. The second group of people are people with a highly developed imagination, and the intuitive perception of the world plays a significant leading role here.

In addition, K. Jung believed that people comprehend, process, and understand the information they receive in different ways. The information may be the same. Based on different ways of analysis, they come to different conclusions and different decisions, which is due to different developments of thinking and feelings (internal functions).

Today, many authors, exploring the problem of influences in advertising, pay more attention to the unconscious subtext of the advertising message going to the consumer and passing through the prism of logic, emotions and feelings.

Thus, advertising uses a huge number of different approaches to perceptual influence and persuading the masses to purchase. In particular, various forms of visual, auditory and kinesthetic nature.

Literature:

Brent J. Charles Sanders Pierce: A Life (PDF) / Translation by A. Smirnov // Logos. - 2004. - No. 3–4 (43). — pp. 231–278.
Saussure F. de. Works on linguistics / Transl. from French language edited by A. A. Kholodovich; Ed. M. A. Oborina; Preface prof. N. S. Chemodanova. - M.: Progress, 1977. - 696 p.
Kiryushchenko V.V. Sign and meaning. — In the book: Pierce C.S. Principles of Philosophy. - St. Petersburg, 2001. - 435–500 p.
Alexey Bulatov. Aubade // Access mode: https://www.peoples.ru (date of access: 04/26/2015).
Aleshina I.V. Public Relations for managers and marketers, - M.: Gnome - PRESS, 1997 - 44 p.
Sandage C.I. Advertising: theory and practice. - M.: Progress, 1989. - 620 p.
Ricoeur, P. Hermeneutics and psychoanalysis. Religion and faith. - M., 1997–54 p.
J. Piaget, B. Inelder “Genesis of elementary logical structures”, M.: “Psychological Research”, 1963, p. 27
K. G. Jung. Man and his symbols - St. Petersburg: B.S.K., 1996. - P.451

Apperceptive distortion

Every subject has a standard interpretation of a stimulus, but some may exhibit deviations from the standards, such a case would constitute an apperceptive distortion. Various testing and research techniques are used in research. Each apperception test involves four forms of distortion:

Externalization. This is a technique used by psychotherapists that consists of considering personality problems as internal characteristics.
Sentization. This is a type of therapy aimed at overcoming unwanted behavior, which in most cases is associated with unpleasant ideas of a mental nature.
Simple projection. This is the influence on the apperception of affective states that accompanied a person in the past, and its distortion. For example, a person may hate someone, being convinced that the object of hatred also has a reason to hate. That is, it is the attribution to others of those qualities, feelings and emotions that are characteristic of the subject.
Rear projection. This concept is the opposite of the previous one, when a person ascribes to himself qualities that he does not possess, but really wants to possess them, or attributes his bad qualities to other people. For example: a former alcoholic attacks everyone who drinks alcohol and condemns them, someone who sharply raises the gay topic, is indignant at parades and sees a gay in every stylish man - probably a latent gay himself, fighters for morality condemn miniskirts only because were brought up in families where they were not allowed to wear them, although they really wanted to (they have girls in minis - of easy virtue).

Apperceptive hallucinations

When apperceptive perception fails, it can lead to distortion and further problems. If we consider the cause of such a phenomenon as apperceptive hallucinations, then it is worth noting that they are of two types and both are the result of mental disorders. But more on that a little later.

First you need to understand what a hallucination is. This is a perception disorder that entails the emergence of various images without the presence of real objects. Hallucinations can be not only visual, but also auditory (for example, voices in the head), tactile, olfactory, that is, divided by sense organ.

Apperceptive hallucinations have a clear difference in the mechanism of their appearance from other known ones. This kind of hallucination occurs with the help of a person’s volitional effort. He, as it were, forces himself to experience them and passionately desires it. For example, a person suffering from schizophrenia causes himself to experience auditory hallucinations and after a while he actually begins to hear voices in his head and other sounds.

So, let’s move on to consider two types of apperceptive hallucinations:

Abstract phontoremia. It consists of taking away your own thoughts and hammering others’ thoughts into your head.
Specific phontoremia. Appears against the background of his own memories, which seem to have surfaced earlier in hallucinations.

Sensory and perceptual properties

The sensory system is a system in the human body that is responsible for the occurrence of sensation when exposed to a corresponding stimulus.

Perception is the process of direct active reflection by the cognitive sphere of a person of external and internal objects (objects), situations, events, phenomena, etc.

Almost all types of sensitivity can be used in work activities - from visual and auditory to gustatory and olfactory. But it would be wrong to approach the individual as a random collection of different types of sensitivity, ignoring the structural character of his sensory organization.

B. G. Ananyev proposes to consider as the main characteristic of human sensory the method of sensitivity common to a given individual, which is a property of the sensory organization of a person as a whole. This general property, called sensitivity in psychology, is part of the structure of temperament. Despite the wide variety of types and levels of sensitivity in the same person, sensitivity is a general, relatively stable personality trait that manifests itself in different conditions, under the influence of external stimuli of a very different nature.

The type of nervous system of a particular person affects the overall sensitivity of all his analyzers. The speed of sensation and discrimination depends on the mobility of nervous processes and their balance (in the mobile type the speed of sensation is greater, in the inhibited type the differentiation is more accurate, etc.). The stability of the level of sensitivity depends on the strength of the nervous processes, their mobility and balance (more unstable in the excitable type, inert in the inhibitory type). Emotional reactivity when exposed to stimuli on receptors especially depends on the strength of nervous processes - greater in the weak type, least in the inert.

Due to the stability of the considered characteristics, for professions that place increased demands on such properties as speed of discrimination, stability of the level of sensitivity, etc., a real means of increasing the efficiency of specialists is professional selection.

The second characteristic of sensory processes, which is of great importance for success in many types of professional activities, is the level of sensitivity of the analyzers. The development of different types of sensitivity in the general sensory organization of a person is characterized by unevenness: the same person may have increased sensitivity in the field of spatial differences or speech hearing and at the same time reduced sensitivity of color vision or musical hearing. These features may be associated with the natural predominance of one of the analyzers or with its leading role, formed as a result of long-term professional experience. They determine not only the individual characteristics of receiving information, but also the predominance of one or another type of representation in the imagination, memory, and figurative thinking.

How stable is this characteristic? Numerous studies indicate that the effectiveness of solving sensory and perceptual problems increases significantly under the influence of professional experience or special training.

The study of sensory skills has shown that they consist of a stock of sensory standards (representations) and mastery of ways to operate with images, in particular, comparing the perceived signal with a standard one. If an experienced specialist must detect a malfunction in unfamiliar equipment, he turns to the same, but known to be working device, comparing their characteristics (visual, auditory, kinesthetic signals) at the level of primary images.

The researchers conducted an experimental development of complex perceptual skills (“technical hearing”) to identify malfunctions in internal combustion engines and diagnostic techniques for extracting information about the malfunction of electronic equipment and proved the possibility of quickly increasing the effectiveness of solving sensory and perceptual tasks in subjects who do not have increased sensitivity. (Although among the professionals who independently developed similar skills were specialists with a high level of sensitivity in a professionally important area.)

Thus, the question of the relative importance of changes in the level of sensitivity and sensory skills for the success of solving sensory tasks remains open. Apparently, low sensitivity thresholds serve as a prerequisite for the formation of appropriate skills, and the process of skill formation, verbalization of signals, and intellectualization of the perception process lead to increased sensitivity.

The compensating role of sensory and perceptual skills in relation to the corresponding professionally significant properties is undoubted. In the structure of this sensory basis of activity (SBA), a leading or leading and auxiliary analyzers are distinguished. The main analyzer receives basic information about the progress of the labor process. The leading position is maintained by the analyzer either permanently or at individual stages of operations. The composition of the sensory basis of labor activity may remain unchanged throughout the entire labor process, but one or another analyzer may be turned on or off during the transition from operation to operation.

One of the most important factors determining the structure and functions of SOD is the specific material environment, the transformation of which is associated with professional activity. As technology becomes more complex during automation, the requirements for the sensory and perceptual properties of a specialist not only do not decrease, but develop into a requirement for a high sensory culture. One of the most important components of sensory culture is the culture of observation - a multi-analytical, purposeful activity of perception, mediated by knowledge and thinking. Professional observation skills are closely related to observation as a personality property: it relies on this property and at the same time develops it.

Perception as a complex perceptual process.

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Perception, or perception, is the process of reflection of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. There are different types of perception depending on which analyzer (sensory organ) plays the leading role in it - visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory, gustatory. Depending on the form of existence of matter, they distinguish between the perception of space, direction, magnitude (which, in turn, distinguishes the perception of shape, distance, depth, perspective, etc.) and the perception of time.

Perception is divided depending on the degree of complexity, the unfolding of its process itself: simultaneous (“single-stage”, instantaneous) and successive (relatively divided into micro-stages), as well as according to the degree of awareness - voluntary and involuntary perception. Perception has a number of basic properties: objectivity, integrity, structure, meaningfulness, selectivity, constancy, dependence on a person’s past experience (apperception), limited volume. The process of perception includes a number of stages (phases of perception) that naturally replace each other: detection, discrimination, identification, categorization, recognition, recognition. All these types, properties, phases, patterns are preserved in management activities, providing an adequate and meaningful, substantive and structured reflection of external information. They form mechanisms for the formation of a leader’s sensory experience. For example, the property of selectivity of perception plays an important role, ensuring the identification of the most significant features of the external situation. No less important is the property of structure, which allows us to perceive situations holistically (panoramic), but at the same time internally ordered. The property of apperception ensures constant “linking” of perceived information with professional and personal experience, as well as its “decoding” - decoding.

Individual style differences in perception also play a certain role in management activities. There are two main styles - analytical and synthetic and two additional - analytical-synthetic and emotional. “Synthetics” are characterized by a tendency to generalize reflection of phenomena and to determine their general, basic meaning. “Analysts,” on the contrary, are characterized by a tendency to highlight parts, details, details. The analytical-synthetic type is characterized by a combination of these features, however, with less severity of both. The emotional type is characterized by an increased sensory reaction to a situation, which, as a rule, interferes with its adequate perception. Of course, the third, analytical-synthetic, type of perception is the best for management activities; the first two are less effective; the fourth acts as a contraindication to management. Finally, among the general characteristics of perception, it is necessary to note such an important individual feature as observation. This is a general characteristic of perception, derived from all its other features. It consists of selective, arbitrary, meaningful and linked to an assessment based on past experience, recording the important and most significant features of the situation. In relation to management activities, it is customary to talk not just about observation, but about “sophisticated observation” (B.M. Teplov) as an important quality of a leader.

8. Physiological basis of perception.

Complex neural processes in the cerebral cortex that underlie perception are characterized by the fact that they are caused by complex stimuli acting simultaneously on different receptors, consist of the simultaneous and coordinated activity of several analyzers and occur with the large participation of associative parts of the cortex and speech centers.

For example, when we perceive an apple, we simultaneously feel: with vision - the color of the apple, with the skin - its temperature and surface properties, with olfaction - its smell, with taste buds - its taste, etc.

These excitations in the receptors provide, in the words of I. Pavlov, “the first basis for analysis,” but are still not sufficient for the full implementation of perception. For the latter, it is necessary that the excitations arising in the receptors be transmitted to the cerebral cortex, where complex analytical-synthetic nerve connections are formed, which are the physiological basis of perception.

Excitations arising under the influence of a complex stimulus in several different receptors are transmitted to the brain ends of the analyzers simultaneously or in close succession. The cortical sections of various analyzers mutually penetrate each other, which undoubtedly facilitates the formation of connections between them when perceiving complex objects and phenomena. The simultaneous excitation of these cortical sections leads to the formation of temporary nerve connections between them, to complex integrative nervous processes, which include not only direct excitation from complex stimuli, but also revived traces of previous nerve connections.

Perception is a reflection of a whole object, since the individual parts of a really existing object are always connected to each other in some specific relationship. This makes it possible to perceive the very structure of the object, abstracting from the qualities of the stimuli themselves. For example, we perceive any melody regardless of whether it is played in a high or low register, on a piano or violin, or sung by voice. We see the same picture, abstracting from whether it is painted, presented in an engraving, or given to us simply in the form of a photograph.

The most important role in the nervous processes that form the physiological basis of perception is played by the second signaling system, which is organically connected with the primary signal excitations, but has a leading, directing significance. So, when looking at the drawing

combining two different images, we will perceive the one that is correspondingly reflected in the word, in the name of the object. In this case, the word (second signal system) organizes direct visual images (first signal system). When we realize (and this is not possible without words) that we see a “vase,” in the system of primary signal stimuli, the white parts of the picture acquire primary importance and their outline is perceived as the outline of a vase. When we are told that “two profiles facing each other” are depicted here, the system of primary signal stimuli is rearranged, in it the black parts of the picture come to the fore, the contours of which are perceived as the outlines of faces, and individual parts of the contours acquire the meaning of the forehead, lips, chin

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